Bangladesh, Two Nation Theory (Contd-3)

1937-40 period was critical in the growth of two-nation theory.Under the Govt. of India Act 1935, elections to the provincial legislative assemblies were held in 1937.Congress gained in the seven out of eleven provinces and they took a strictly legalistic standon the formtion of provincial ministries and refused to form a coalition govt. with the Muslim league, even in the United Provinces, which substantial Muslim minority, provinces such as Punjab,and the NWFP. The conduct of Congress Govt. in Muslim minority provinces permanently alienated Muslim Leasgue.

By the late 1930s, Jinnah was convinced of the need for a separate Muslim state. At its annual session in Lahore on March 23, 1940, the Muslim League resolved that the areas of Muslim majority in north -western and eastern Indiashould be grouped together to constitute independence plan without this provision was unacceptable to Muslims.Federation was rejected. The Lahore resolution (forward by Sher-e-Bengal Mr. A.K.Fazlul Haq) was often referred to as the "Pakistan Resolution." However the word Pakistan did not appear in it.

Map of the British India 1909,showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts.

The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process, based on historical experience . Muslim Modernist and reformer Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) began the period of south Asian Muslim self-awakening and identity, Poet Philosopher Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), provided the philosophical explanation, and barrister Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1871-1848)translated it into the political reality of a nation state.

The evidence cited for the differences dated eleventh century, when the scholar Ai=Biruni (973-1048) observed that Hindus and Muslims differed in all matters and habits.

Al-Biruni (973-1048)

Allama Iqbal's explained the two-nation theory. The decision was taken in Lahore Congress in 1940.

Bangladesh,Two Nation Theory (contd-2)

Events in the late 20s and 30s led Muslims to think that destiny might be at a separate state, a concept that converge to the partition of India. In 1929, Motilal Nehru convened a meeting of all parties to come to a conclusion on Simon Commision. The majority was of the opinion to reject the idea of "separate electorates" excepting Jinnah who submitted a 15 points demands of the Muslim leaguewhich were rejected.

Muslim Philosopher in south Asia, Sir Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) reiterated that unitary form of Govt. was impossible in India. To him,communalism in the highest sense was the key to direct the state of situation prevailing in India. He, in his presidential address in the Allahabad session 1940 of the League, demanded the establishment of a confederationto include a Muslim State consisting of Punjab, NWFP,Sindh,and Baluchistan, based on unity of language,race, history,religionand identity of economic interests. subsequently a group students of Cambridgein Britain issued a pamplet enunciating the name PAKISTAN (as P for Punjab, A for afghanii.e.NWFP, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh, T for Tukharistan, A for Afganistan, and N for Baluchistan.

Iqbal

In 1934 Jinnah put an argument to their demand i.e. Two Nation Theory.

Bangladesh, Two Nation Theory (contd-1)

Following the failure to work with the Congress, Jinnah, who had embraced separate electorates and the exclusive right of the League to represent Muslima, was converted to the idea that Muslims needed a separate state to protect their rights. Jinnah came to believe that Muslims and Hindus were disrinct nations with unbridgeable differences-a view later known as the Two Nation Theory. Jinnah declared that a united India would lead to marginalisation of Muslims, and eventually civil war between Hindus and Muslims.This change of view may have occurredthrough his correspondence with Iqbal, who was close to Jinnah. In the session in Lahore in 1940, the Pakistan resolution was adoptedas the main goal of the Party.The resolution was rejectedoutright by the congress, and criticised by many Muslim leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan,Syed Ab'ul Ala Maududi,and the Jamaat-e-Islami. On July 26, 1943,Jinnah was stabed and wounded by a member of the extremist Khaksars in an attempted assassination.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

Abdul Gaffar Khan

Bangaladesh, Two Nation Theory

Prominant Muslim Leaders like the Aga Khan,Choudhury Rahmat Ali and Sir Muhammad Iqbal made efforts to convince Jinnah to return from London (where he had moved to to in 1931 and planned on permanently relocating in order to practice in the privy council bar) to Indiaandtake charge of a now reunited Muslim league . In 1934 Jinnah returned and began to reorgnise the party, being closely assisted by Liakat Ali Khan, who would act as his right hand man. In the 1937 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly, the league emerged as a competant party, capturing a significant number of seats under the Muslim electorade , but lost in the Muslim-majority Punjab,Sindh,and the North West Frontier Province.Jinnah offered an alliance with the Congress- both bodies would face the British together, but the Congress had to share power, accept separate electorates and the League as the representative of the Muslims in India.The latter two terms were unacceptable by Congress, which had its own national Muslim Leaders and membership and adhered to secularism.Even as Jinnah held talks with Congress President Rajendra Prasad, Congress leaders suspected that Jinnah would use his position as a lever for exaggerated demands and obstruct govt. and demanded that the league merge with the congress. The talks failed, and while Jinnah declared the resignation of all Congressmen from provincial and central offices in 1938 as a "Day of Deliberance" from Hindu dominations, some historians assert that he remained for an agreement.

Muhammad Iqbal

In a speech to the League in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal mooted an Independent state for Muslims in "North West India". Choudhury Rahmat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state called Pakistan.

Choudhury Rahmat Ali

Bangladesh, Communalism (contd-5)

Bengal was witnessing the last effort by the landed Hindu Bhadralok to protect as a class their economic, social and political dominance and the Swarajists and the Congress became the willing partners in this move. The resuscitation of communal feeling among Hindus from the first month of 1927 further strengthened Muslim communal cosciousness . An anti-Muslim tirade in the Hindu press followed the murder of Arya samaj leader Swami Shradhananda in north India .MUslim political opinion naturally reacted sharply to this attempt to elevate a "rank communalist " to a nationalist stature. When Hinsdu councilors of thed Calcutta Corporation resolved to name a park after Shradhananda the Muslim press condemned the move as another instance of the trampling of Muslim sentiment by rampant Hindu communalism.
Thecommunal divide within the realm of organised politics in Bengal, which had now become apparent, was reflected in both Hindu and Muslim press. The 1935 the Govt. of India Act providing for provincial autonomy based on separate electorates, was yet another turning point in the evolution of communal politics in Bengal.The act reserved for the Muslims nearly half of the total seats in the proposed Bengal legislature, which made Hindu politicians feel that they would be unable to influence legislation proportionately to theit interests in the provinces. this psychological blow was soon transformed into a material setback for the Hindu elite when the Krisak Praja Party -muslim league coalition ministry initiated a number of legislative and executive measures to improve the condition of the subordinate social groups who mostly belonged to the Muslim Community. A growing notion amongst the Hindu elite of being reduced to subservience due to these measures was perhaps far-fetched. But unemployment among the educated Hindus increased significantly in the post-1937 period, largely the result of the Muslim League Ministry's rigid enforcement of the communal ratio in public offices.The Muslim Community had responded in the 19th century reformist movement by intiating a process of self-definition , self=classification and self-identification.Pakistan movement was the culmination of a pan-indian attempt by the Muslim eliteto use the assertion of this identity at the popular level toestablish for political ends, a vertical solidarity within the Muslim community.

Bangladesh,Bengal Legislative Assembly

The history of the Bengal legislature dated back to 18 jan. 1862 when under the Indian Councils Act of 1861, a 12 member legislative council for Bengal was established by the Governor-General of India with lt. governor of Bengal and some nominated members. The strength of the council was gradually enlarged by subsequent Acts. Under the Indian Councils act of 1892, the maximum strength of the Council was raised to 20 out of which 7 were to be elected. the indian councils act of 1909, the number of members of the Council raised to 50. Under the Govt. of India act 1919, the number pf members of the legilative council again raised to 125, which was formally inaugurated on 1 Deb. 1921 by His Royal highness the duke of Connaught.
a few years later, under the provisions of the Govt. of india Act 1935, two chambers of the bengal Legislature : The legislative Council and the Legislative assembly , were created.the result of the election to the bengal Legislative council in nov. 1926, clearly reflected the communal trend in organised politics.The swarajists, who failed to dissociate themselves from Hindu vested interests despite their nationalist concerns, won 35 of the 47 hindu seats but were successful in only one of the 39 Muslim constituencies. On the other hand, the Bengal Muslim party under Abdur Rahim emerged as the largest single group in the new council. But t could not present a united political front with the other two Muslim organisations, the Bengal Muslim Council Party and the independentmuslim Party. What, however, became significant was the development of a "Muslim Bloc" inside the Bengal legislature.None of the ministries formed after the 1926 elections had a long life , but all of them were Muslim dominated Muslim politicians in Bengalwere thus seizing the initiative in legislative politics. The Calcutta Corporation Electionsof April 1927, also resulted in the formation of a distinct Muslim group within that body. Muslim councilors held the political balance.
The alignment of communal political forces was manifested in discussions on economic issues too. To mobilise support from the communities subordinate social groups the muslim leaders voiced in the Bengal legilative council and other bodies an unequivocal support for the overwhelmingly Muslim praja (tenant) against their predominantlyHindu zamindars.this c ould be noticed during the Tenancy Act debates in the council in 1928. While the Muslim members with few exceptions voted for all clauses of the Act that favouredthe bargadars (share croppers) , under raiyats and tenants, the Hindu members -Swarajists alike-sought to protect the interests of the owners of the land. In popular Muslim perceptions the Hindu politicians naturally came to be viewed as allies of the Hindu renter class.

Bangladesh, Towards Democratisation

India in 1857

The Counci of India (Legislative Council of India), first formed, was the advisory council to the Governor-general of india for the period of British rule in India between 1773 and 1920.

The Council was established by the regulating act for India 1773 to oversee the newly created office of the Governor-General, who later became the Viceroy and Governor- General of India.

The 1773 Act provided for the election of four counsellors by the East india company's court of Directors. the Governor-General had a vote along with the counsellors , but he also had an additional casting vote. The decision of the council was binding on the Governor-General. The council of four , as it was known in its early days, did in fact impeach the first Governor-general , warren hastings, but in his susequent ntrial he was found to be not guilty.

In 1784, the council was reduced to three members, the Governor-general continued to have both an ordinary and a casting vote.In 1786, the power of the Gover-general was increased even further, as Council decisionsceased to be binding.

the Charter Act 1833 made further changes to the structure of the Council. The Actnwas the first law to distinguish between the executive and legislative responsibilities of the Governor-general. as provided under the Act , there were to be four members of the council elected by the court of directors. The first three members were permitted to participate on all occasions, but the fourth member was only allowed to sit and vote when legislation was being debated.

In 1858, the Dourt of directors ceased to have the power to elect members of the council . instead, the one member who had a vote only on legislative questions came to be appointed by thesovereign and the other three mambers by the secretary of state for india.

The councils Act 1861 made several changes to the councils composition . Three members were to be appointed by the secretary of state for india, and two by the sovereign. (The power to appoint all five members passed to the crown in 1869). The Governor -general was empowered to appoint an additional six to twelve members (changed to ten to sixteen in 1892, and to sixty in 1909). the five individuals appointed by the Indian secretary or Sovereign headed the executive departments, while those appointed by the Governor-general debated and voted on legislation.

As a result of the Govt. of India Act 1919, an Indian legislature, consisting of a council of state and a central legislative assembly, took over the legislative functions of the governor-general's council. the Governor- General nonetheless retained significant power over legislation . he could authorise the expenditure of money without the legislature's consent for "ecclesciastical, political (and) defence "purposes, and for any purpose during "emergencies". He was permitted to veto, or even stop debate on, any bill. if he recommended the passage of a bill, but only one chamber cooperated, he could declare the bill passed over the objections of the other chamber. The Legislature had no authority over foreign affairs and defence. The president of thye council of state was appointed by the Governor- General, the central legislative assembly elected its own president,apart from the first, but the election required the Gover General's Approval.
The post 1920 Council of state was replaced by nthe Rajya Sabha in 1952.