Pakistan, Lucknow pact (contd-1)

Although this Hindu-Muslim unity was not able to live for more than 8 years , and collapsed after the development of differences between the two communities after the Khilafat Movement, yet it was an important event in the history of the muslims of South Asia. It was the first time when Congress recognised the Muslim League as the Political partyrepresenting the Muslims of the region.

Pakistan, Lucknow pact,1916

Lucknow pact refers to an agreement between Indian National Congress and Muslim League.In 1916, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a member  of the Muslim League negotiated with the Indian National Congress to reach an agreement to Presure the British Govt. to have a more liberal approach to India and give Indians more authoriy to run their country. This was a considerable change of policy for the Muslim League, as it was established to preserve Muslim interests in India, they needed to support British rule in India. After the unpopular partition of Bengal, the Muslim League was confused about its stand and it was at this time that jinnah approached the league . Jinnah was the mastermind and architect of the pact.
The lucknow Pact also marked the establishment of cordial relations between the two two prominent groups of the INCled by Tilak and Gokhale. 

Pakistan, Early days of Muslim League

In the early days of Muslim League there was no demand for separate state. Their main goal were :
 1. To promote understanding between the Muslim Community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the govt. discouraging violence.
 2. to safeguard Muslim rights and liberties, and
 3, to get proportional representation in all affairs including parliamentary bodies and other services.and
 4.to promote among the Muslims of India , feelings of loyalty to the British govt.
The principles of the league were laid down in the "Green book,"which included the organisation's constitution, written by Maulana Mohammad Ali.  
Jinnah at first didnot join the league till 1913when it changed its platform to one of Indian Independence as a reaction against the British decision to reverse the 1905 partition of Bengal, which the League regarded as a betrayal of the Bengali muslims. At this stage Jinnah believed in Hindu-muslim co-operation to achieve an Independent , united india, although he argued that Muslims should be granted one-third of the seats in any Indian parliament.While a few years the League had become the sole representative body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in 1916 and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the congress , in which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted representation for the muslim Community.

Pakistan, Background of the formation of Muslim League

Background of the formation of Muslim League:Islamic rule was established across northern India between the 7th and 14th  centuries.The Muslim Mughol Empire ruled most of India from Delhi from the early 16th century until its power was broken by the British in the 19th century. This left a dis-empowered and discontented  Muslim Minority, afraid of being swamped by the Hindu majority. Muslims represented about 23 % of the population of British India, and constituted the majority of the population of Baluchistan, East Bengal, Kashmir valley, North West Frontier Province, Punjab region and the Sind region of the Bombay Presidency.
A turning point came in 1900 when the British administration in the largest Indian State, the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), acceded to Hindu demands and made HINDI ,written in Devanagari script, the official language. This seemed to aggravate Muslim fears that the Hindu majority would seek to suppress Muslim Culture and religion in an independent India. A British official, Sir Percival Griffiths , wrote of " the Muslim belief that their interest must be regarded as completely separate from those of the Hindus, and that no fusion of the two communities was possible."
In the late 19th century an Indian nationalist movement developed, with the Indian National Congress being founded in 1885.Although the Congress made efforts to enlist the Muslim community in its struggle for Indian Independence , most of the Muslims remained reluctant to join the party, though some Muslims were active in the Congress, the Majority of the Muslim Leaders did not trust the Hindu majority.
In the first meeting of the of the League, held on 30 Dec. 1906 at Shahbagh, Dhaka, presided over by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, attended by 3,000 delegates, it was declared that
   "The Mussalmans (Muslims) are only a fifth in number as compared with the total population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period the British Govt. ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India would pass into the hands of that community which is nearly four times as long as ourselves ....our life, our property, our honour, our faith will all be in great danger , when even now that a powerful British administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from grasping hands of our neighbors.            

Pakistan, Formation of AIML (contd-1)

Adamjee Peerbhoy: Sir Adamjee Peerbhoy was one of India's largest cotton manufacturersand wealthiest man.At one point he employed 15,000 workers in his cotton mills and supplied the canvas used for the tents and khaki uniforms of the British soldiers during the 2nd Boer war.Peerbhoy was also the first Indian Shreiff of Mumbaiand was said to be the owner of the largest tannery in Asia. It is thought that he first made his money from shipbuilding. Peerbhoy became President of the Muslim League for a time attending its first session in Karachi in 1907.Peerbhoy financed his son for construction of the Matheron Hill Railway which linked Matheron and Neral.

Salem Ullah

The formation of ALML was a major landmark in the history of modern India. The first formal entry of a centrally organised political party exclusively for muslims had the following objectives:

  1. To promote among the Muslim of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Govt. and remove any misconception that may arise as to the instruction of Govt. with regard to any of its measures.

  2. To protect and advance the political rightsand interests of Muslims of India, and to respectfully represent their needs and aspirations to the Govt.

  3. To prevent the rise among the Muslims of India of any feeling of hostility towards other communities without prejudice to the afore-mentioned objects of the league.

Initially AIML remained a pocket organisation of urbanised Muslims.However, the support of the British Govt. to the political Islamists in their non-secular intention as well as contemptuous attitude towards majority role helped the leagueto become the sole representative body of Indian muslims.To confront the challenge of modern political system , the AIML successfully achieved the status of separate electorates for the Muslims within three years of its formation.It was the first big achievement of the party, which granted separate constitutional identity to the Muslims.Lucknow pact of 1916 put official seal on the separate identity of Muslims, which was another landmark in the separatist movement launched by the AIML.  

Pakistan, Towards formation of Muslim League

First session of Indian National Congress,1885First session of AIML,1906

Sir Syed Ahmed

Syed Ameer Ali The foundation of Indian Natiomal Congress in 1885was an attempt to narrow the Hindu-Muslim divide and place the genuine grievance of all the communities in the country before the British.But Sir Syed and other muslim Leaders like Ameer Ali projected the Congress as a representative body of Hindus and thus, thwarted the first genuine attempt in the countryfor Hindu-Muslim unity. Poor participation of of Muslims in the Congress proves it. "of the seventy two delegates attending the first session of the Congress only two were Muslims."Muslim leaders opposed the Congress tooth and nail on the plea that Muslims' participation in it would create an unfavourable reaction among the rulers against their community".

Muslim Orthodoxy or its patrons in elite sections in the community with sword of religious identity and slogan- 'Islam is in Danger' continuously challenged the political awakening in Indian society if it directly or indirectly affected their superior status and influence. They therefore viewed the democratic and secular movement launched by the Congress- as hallenge to their supremacy over the Hindus. Acceptance of Devanagri script and Hindi as an official language of United Province now Uttar Pradesh i place of Persian in 1900 by Lieutenant Governor A.Macdonnel was another significant development to Stir the Muslims on communal line. No such aggressive resistance was made when the British replaced Persian with English in late thirties of nineteenth century.

Sir Syed Ahmed died in 1898 but his followers in defense of Urdu language launched agitation against the decision of the representative of British power in United Province.

On 1 Oct 1906, a 35 member delegation of the Muslim nobles , aristocracies, legal professionals and other elite sections of the community mostly assciated with Aligarh movement gathered at Siml under the leadership of Aga Khan to present an address to Lord Minto.They demanded proportional representation of Muslims in Govt, jobs, appointment of Muslim Judges in High courts,and members in viceroy's councils etc. Though Simla deputation failed to obtain any positive commitment from the viceroy, it worked as a catalyst for foundation of AIML to safeguard the interests of the Muslims.
under the active leadership of Aligarhians, the movements  the movements for Muslim separatism created political awakening among the Muslims in the communal line.  This ideology of political exclusivism in the name of religion gave birth to nAIMLin the session of All India muslim League in the session of All India Mohammedan Educational conference held in Dacca (Dec. 27-30, 1906). Nawab Salimullah , chairman of the reception committeeand convener of the political meeting proposed the creation of AIML. A 56-member provisional committee was constituted with prominent Muslim leaders from different parts of the country.Even some Muslim members within the Congress like Ali Imam, Hasan Imam, Mazhanul haque (All Barristers from Bihar) and Hami Ali khan (Barrister from Lucknow) were included in the committee.Mohsin -ul-Mulk in 1907, Viqar-ul-Mulk was in full control of he league.First session of the league was held in Dec, 29-30 at karachi with Adamjee Peerbhoy as its President.

Pakistan, Govt. of India Act, 1909 (contd-1)

The Act of 1909 was important for the following reasons ;

1. it effectively allowed the election of Indians to the various legislative councils in India for the first time.Previously some Indians had been appointed to Legislative Councils. The majorities of the Councils remained British Govt. appointments. Moreover the electorate was limited to specific classes of Indian Nationals.

2. The Introduction of the electoral principle laid the the ground work for a parliamentary system even though this was contrary to the intent of Morley. As stated by Burke and Quraishi ;

"To Lord Curzon's apprehension that the new councils could become 'parliamentary bodies in Miniature,' Morley vehemently replied , "if it could be said that this chapter of reforms led directly or indirectly to the establishment of a parliamentary system in India, I for one would have nothing at all to do with it." But he had already confessed in a letter to Minto in June 1906 that while it was inconceivable to adapt English political institutions to the nations who inhabit India .. the spirit of English institutionsis a different thing and it is a thing that we cannot escape, even if we wished ... because the British constitutencies are the masters, and they will assuredly insist... all parties alike... on the spirit of the British system of Government could be achieved without its body.

Muslims had expressed serious concern that a 'first past the post' British type of electoral system would leave them permanentlysubject to Hindu majority rule. The Act of 1909 stipulated as demanded by the Muslim Leadership

* that Indian Muslims be alloted reserved seats in the Municipality and District Boards, in the Provincial councils and in the Imperial Legislature;

* that the number of reserved seats be in excess of their relative population (25 5 of the Indian population); and

* that only Muslims should vote nfor the Muslim seats (separate electorats).

The concessions were a constant source of strife 1909-47.British statesmen generally considered reserved seats as regrettable in that they encouraged communal extremism as Muslim candidates did not have to appeal for Hindu votes and Vice versa. As further power was shifted from the British to Indian politicians in 1919, 1935 and after, Muslims were ever more determined to hold on to, and if possible expand , reserved seats and their weightage. However, Hindu politicians repeatedly tried to eliminate reserved seats as they considered them to be undemocratic and to hinder the development of a shared Hindu-muslim Indian national feeling.