Zambia, Ancient history

In the northern African Rift valley, the civilising process got underway at least 3mmillion years ago, and crude stone implements, similar to some of that age found in Kenya, have also been found beside the Zambezi river.

Stone Age

Early stone age sites have been unearthed in many parts of Zambia, the most significant being at the Kalambo falls in the south The skull of broken Hill man , dated to 70,000 years ago, gives an indication of what humans of that priod looked like. Zambia observed the stone ages, early, middle an late. people began to live in cavesand rock shelters, the walls of which they decorated with paints.The stone age being over, iron age bigins. The original inhabitantsof modern day zambia were goodmen (also called San) were hunters and gatherers. The bushmen were the only inhabitants of the region until the fourth century, when Bantu or Tonga people started to migrate from the north.

The period between the 16th and the 19th centuries saw the emergence of organised Iron Age kingdoms aswell as widespread immigration. Four kingdoms were established in this period - among the Kazmbe-lunda in the north centered around the lower Luapula river. the territory of the present Zambia , being far inland.

Zambia, introduction

The Republic of Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia, is a land locked country in Southern Africa bordered by the Congo to the north,Mawi to the east, Mozambic,Zimbabwe, Botswana and Nambia to the south, and Angola to the west.the population is mainly concentrated around the capital Lusaka in the south and the Copper belt to the north west.

The great rift valley , which cleaves the earth from the lower Zambezi River in southern Zambia to the headwaters of the Nile in Egypt, is now known to be one of the cradles of the human race, and Zambia'spresent population lives on lands that have been inhabited by our forebrars for almost uncountable aeons.Zambia is best known for its copper mines, its dry plateau, and the dramatic Victoria falls.

Victoria falls-1

Victoria falls-2

Victoria falls-3

Kyrgyz,Pictures from intrnet

Toktokul

Victims oct. revolution



Mirza

Statue of liberty

Kurmandjan Datka

Music Party

Kyrgyz, Independence Era (conitinued)

Culture of Kyrgyz

Election for the two legislative chambers -a 35 seat full-time assembly and a 70-seat part time assembly -were held in feb.1995, after campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international observers, although election- day proceedings were marred by widespread irregularities. Independent canidates won mosat of the seats , suggesting that personalities prevail over ideologies. The new parliament convened its initial session in March, 1995. One of its first order of business was the approval of the precise constitutional language on the role of the legislature.

Flagstaff

On Dec. 24, 1995, President Akayev was reelected for another 5-year term with wide support (75 % vote) over two opposing candidates. He used Govt. resources and state-owned media to carry out his campaign . Three (out of six) candidates werte de-registered shortly before the election.

Guard of honour

A feb. 1996, referendum- in violation of the constitution and the law on referendums- amended the constitution to give the President Akayev more power. Although the changes gave the president the power to dissolve parliament, it also more clearly defined the parliaments powers. Since that time , the parliament has demonstrated real independence from the executive branch.

Issik-kul

In oct. 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including increase of the number of deputies in the lower house, reducing the no. of deputies in the upper house, oroviding for 25 % of lower house deputies to be elected by party lists, rolling back parliamentary immunity, introducing private property, prohibiting adoption of laws restricting freedom of speech and mass media, and reforming the state budget.

Marx-Engales

In the latest election , under the sporadic protests by opposition parties and seizure of government building , Akayev hurriedly fled away first to neighbouring Kazakistan and then to Moscow , initially refusing ti resign and denouncing the events as a coup , he susequently resigened his office on april. 2005.

Lenin

Kyrgyz, Independence Era

In oct. 1991, Akayev was elected president of the new Independent republic by direct ballot, receiving votes cast. Together with representatives of seven other republics, he signed The Treaty of the New Economic Communists that same month. On Dec. 21, 1991, Kyrgyzstan formally entered the new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Ala-too-square
In1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political assciates blossomed into a major scandal. One of those accused of improprieties was Prime Minister Chyngyshev, who was dismissed for ethical reasons in December. Following Chyngyshev dismissal , Akayev dismissed the Govt. and called upon the last communit premier, Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one . In Jan. 1994, Akayev initiated a referendum asking for a renewed mandate to complete his term of office. He received 96.2 % of the vote.

Ala-too-square-2

A new constitution was passed by the parliament in may 1993. In 1994, however, the parliament failed to produce a quorum for its last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term in feb., 1995. President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated a boycott by a majority of parliamentarians. Akayev, in turn, asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role. Akayev scheduled an oct. referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters, which proposed two amendments to the constitution - 1. that allow the constitution to be amended by maens of a referendum,2. creating a new bicameral parliamentcalled Jogorku Kenesh.

Bishkek

Kyrgyz, Soviet era

In the early 19th century the southern territory of the Kyrgyz Republic came under the control of the Khanade Kokand,and the territory was formally incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover instigated numerous revolts against tsarist authority, and many Kyrgyz opted to move into the Pamir mountains or to Afganistan. The suppression of the 1916 rebellion in central Asia caused many Kyrgyz to migrate to China.

Centralasia

Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1918 and in 1924, the Kara-kyrgyz Autonomoous Oblast was created within the Russian Federal Socialist Republic. In 1926 , it became the Kyrgyz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On Dec.1936, the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was established as Union Republic of the USSR.

During the 1920s, Kyrgyz Republic saw considerable cultural , educational, and social change. Economic and social development also was notable . Literacy increased and a standard literary language was introduced. In 1924, an Arabic based Kyrgyz alphabet was introduced, which was replaced by Latin Script in 1928. In 1941 Cyrillicscript was adopted .

The Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic was established on Dec. 1936. Soviet the then Prime minister Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) ordered the destruction of many animal herds and forced the Kyrgyz to cultivate their farms, which changed the Kyrgyz lifestyle from nomadic to more settled and caused widespread famine. Another consequence of Soviet rule over the Kyrgyz was dramatic growth in literacy. Prior to 1917, most Kyrgyz schools were madrasahs, almost all Kyrgyz were illiterate. But after the founding of The Soviet Union , all religious schools were forcibly closed , and children were required to attend Public schools. this led to their universal literacy.

On 31 Aug 1991, following the collapse of Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan declared independence.

Kyr gyz, History (continued)

The first Turks to form a state in the territory of central Asia (including Kyrgystan) were Gokturks and his sons in 552 AD which was divided into two rival Khanates in 744. Qokuru Khanate whose empire floureished encompassing most of central Asia from 740-840. He was a Budhist. Some of them was converted to Muslimin 10th century andf built a federation with muslim institutions called kara Khanlik. Its capital, balasagun, flourished as a cultural and economic centre.

Burana tower in Balasagun, 11th century.

In the 13th century the Mongol invaded central Asia and devasted the territory of Kyrgyzstan.

Before Kyrgyzstan was occupied by Russia in 19th century many changes in hands took place there.Kyrgyzstan came in the hands of Khanate of Kokand and formally it was annexed by Russian Empire in 1876.

A 50-Kyrgyzstani som banknote representing KumanjanDatka.